Acromegaly
Occurs due to excessive growth hormone production by the pituitary
gland due to a pituitary adenoma. Also known as pituitary gigantism.
The main signs include thickening of the skin, soft tissues and
bones of the head and feet. There is also hypertension and insulin
resistance
Adult-onset
diabetes
Former term for type 2 or non-insulin-dependent diabetes.
Albuminuria
A condition in which the urine has more than normal
amounts of a protein called albumin. Albuminuria may be a sign of
diabetic nephropathy (kidney disease).
Alpha
cell
A type of cell in the pancreas. Alpha cells make and release a hormone
called glucagon. The body sends a signal to the alpha cells to make
glucagon when blood glucose concentrations fall too low. Glucagon
reaches the liver and tells it to release glucose into the bloodstream
for energy.
Amylin
A hormone formed by beta cells in the pancreas. Amylin regulates
the timing of glucose release into the bloodstream after eating
by slowing the emptying of the stomach.
Amyloid
Deposition of a protein called amyloid, derived from amylin, in
cells of the pancreas, causing dysfunction of these cells. This
acts like scar tissue and produces a diffusion barrier, which results
in a secretory and an absorptive defect to insulin.
Beta
cell
A cell that makes insulin. Beta cells are located in the islets
of the pancreas.
Blood
glucose meter
A small, portable machine that can be used to check blood glucose
concentrations. After pricking the skin with a lancet, a drop of
blood is placed on a test strip in the machine. The meter (or monitor)
soon displays the blood glucose concentration as a number on the
meter's digital display.
Blood
glucose monitoring
Checking blood glucose concentrations on a regular basis in order
to help manage diabetes. A blood glucose meter (or blood glucose
test strips that change color when touched by a blood sample) is
usually used for blood glucose monitoring.
Blood
sugar
See glucose
Cachexia
A profound and marked state of general ill health and malnutrition
(weight loss).
Cataract
Clouding of the lens of the eye.
Chronic
pancreatitis
Chronic inflammation of the pancreas, which can be severe and life
threatening disease during acute episodes. The clinical signs include
vomiting and a painful abdomen.
Coma
A sleep-like state in which a person or animal is not conscious.
May be caused by Hyperglycemia (high blood glucose) or hypoglycemia
(low blood glucose) in diabetics.
Complications
Harmful effects of diabetes, such as damage to the eyes, nervous
system or kidneys. In humans, studies show that keeping blood glucose
concentrations, as well as blood pressure and low-density lipoprotein
cholesterol concentrations, close to normal can help prevent or
delay these problems.
C
peptide
"Connecting peptide," a substance the pancreas releases
into the bloodstream in equal amounts to insulin. A test of C-peptide
levels shows how much insulin the body is making.
Dehydration
The loss of too much body fluid through frequent urinating, sweating,
diarrhea or vomiting.
Diabetes
insipidus
A metabolic disorder resulting in deficient secretion of antidiuretic
hormone (ADH or vasopressin). This results in the failure of tubular
reabsorption of water in the kidney. Polyuria (urine has a very
low specific gravity) and polydipsia results. There is no glucose
present in the urine.
Diabetes
mellitus
A condition characterized by Hyperglycemia resulting from the body's
inability to use blood glucose for energy. In insulin-dependent
(type 1) diabetes, the pancreas no longer makes insulin and therefore
blood glucose cannot enter the cells to be used for energy. In non-insulin
dependent (type 2) diabetes, either the pancreas does not make enough
insulin or the body is unable to use insulin correctly.
Diabetic
ketoacidosis (DKA)
An emergency condition in which extremely high blood glucose levels,
along with a severe lack of insulin, result in the breakdown of
body fat for energy and ketones accumulate in the blood and urine.
Signs of DKA include vomiting, fruity breath odor, and rapid breathing.
Untreated DKA can lead to coma and death.
Diabetic
retinopathy
Diabetic eye disease; damage to the small blood vessels in the retina.
Loss of vision may result.
Diabetogenic
Causing diabetes. For example, some drugs, such as progestogens
and corticosteroids, cause blood glucose levels to rise, resulting
in diabetes.
DKA
See diabetic
ketoacidosis
Dosage
adjustment
see dose
adjustment
Dose
adjustment
A change in the amount of insulin given to a diabetic dog or cat
based on factors such as blood glucose concentrations, diet and
exercise.
Endocrine
gland
A group of specialized cells that release hormones into the blood.
For example, the islets in the pancreas, which secrete insulin,
are endocrine glands.
Enzyme
Protein made by the body that brings about a chemical reaction,
for example, the enzymes produced by the gut to aid digestion.
Euglycemia
A normal concentration of glucose in the blood.
Fructosamine
Fructosamines are stable complexes of carbohydrates and proteins
that are produced by an irreversible, nonenzymatic glycosylation
of protein. Glucose has a greater affinity for albumin in dogs and
for globulins in cats. A single measure of fructosamine indicates
the average glucose concentration over the previous 1-2 weeks. Fructosamine
measurement may be used to assist in the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus
as well as to monitor the effectiveness of insulin therapy in diabetic
dogs and cats.
Gland
A group of cells that secrete substances. Endocrine glands secrete
hormones. Exocrine glands secrete salt, enzymes, and water.
Glucagon
A hormone produced by the alpha cells in the pancreas. It raises
blood glucose. An injectable form of glucagon, available by prescription,
may be used to treat severe hypoglycemia.
Gluconeogenesis
Production of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors, such as
pyruvate, amino acids and glycerol. Gluconeogenesis takes place
mainly in the liver and maintains blood glucose concentrations during,
e.g., starvation and intense exercise.
Glucose
The main sugar found in the blood and the body's main source of
energy. Also called blood glucose or blood sugar.
Blood glucose concentration: The amount of glucose in a given amount
of blood. It is noted in millimoles per liter (mmol/L), milligrams
per deciliter (mg/dL) or grams per liter (g/L).
Glucose
tablets
Chewable tablets made of pure glucose used for treating hypoglycemia.
Glucosuria
The presence of glucose in the urine.
Glycemia
blood glucose or blood sugar.
Glycogen
The form of glucose found in the liver and muscles.
Glycosuria
see glucosuria
Glycosylated
(glycated) hemoglobin
As the blood glucose concentrtion increases, the proportion of the
hemoglobin molecules that bind glucose increases. Glycosylated
hemoglobin is the amount of glucose-bound hemoglobin. This measurement
reflects how well a diabetic animal is being controlled. This method
is used less frequently than fructosamine in diabetic dogs and cats
because it reflects the average blood glucose concetration over
the previous 8-12 weeks.
Glycosylation
The uncontrolled, non-enzymatic reaction of sugars with proteins.
Very important in the complications of diabetes mellitus where abnormally
high glucose concentrtions result in the glycosylation of proteins
such as in the lens of the eye.
High
blood glucose
See Hyperglycemia
Hormone
A chemical produced in one part of the body and released into the
blood to trigger or regulate particular functions of the body. For
example, insulin is a hormone made in the pancreas that tells other
cells when to use glucose for energy.
Hyperadrenocorticism
Also known as Cushing’s disease. It results from an increase
in cortisol secretion from the adrenal glands. The characteristic
clinical signs result from excessive glucocorticoids concentrations.
Hyperadrenocorticism is much more common in dogs than in cats. Animals
with Cushing’s disease often have concurrent diabetes mellitus.
Hyperlipidemia
Elevated plasma concentrations of lipids, such as cholesterol, triglycerides
and/or lipoproteins
Hyperglycemia
Excessive blood glucose concentrations; a sign that diabetes is
not well controlled.
Hyperosmolar
hyperglycemic non-ketotic syndrome (HHS)
An emergency condition in which the blood glucose concentration
is very high and there are no ketones present in the blood or urine.
If HHNS is not treated, it can lead to coma or death.
Hyperthyroidism
A common condition in older cats (rare in dogs) that has characteristic
clinical signs related to overproduction of the thyroid hormone
thyroxine. Can be concurrent with diabetes mellitus.
Hypoglycemia
A condition that occurs when the blood glucose concentration is
lower than normal, usually less than 3.5 mmol/L (63 mg/dL) in dogs
and 3 mmol/L (54 mg/dL) in cats. Signs include hunger, nervousness,
shakiness, and sleepiness. If left untreated, hypoglycemia may lead
to unconsciousness. Hypoglycemia is treated by consuming a carbohydrate-rich
food such as a glucose tablet or juice.
Hypokalemia
Abnormally low potassium concentration in the blood. In diabetic
cats, this is seen as neuromuscular disorders ranging from weakness
to paralysis. Serum potassium concentrations can fall within the
normal range if dehydration is severe.
Hyponatremia
Deficiency of sodium in the blood; salt depletion
Hypophosphatemia
An abnormally decreased level of phosphates in the blood.
IDDM
(insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus)
Former term for type 1 diabetes.
Injection
Inserting liquid medication or nutrients into the body with a syringe.
A person with diabetes may use short needles or pinch the skin and
inject at an angle to avoid an intramuscular injection of insulin.
Injection pen
A device for injecting that looks like a fountain pen and holds cartridges that contain the substance for injection. Injection pens can be disposable or be designed for repeated use (with replaceable cartridges). See also Insulin pen.
Injection
sites
Places on the body where insulin is usually injected.
Insulin
A hormone that helps the body use glucose for energy. The beta cells
of the pancreas make insulin. When the body cannot make enough insulin,
insulin is usually given to dogs and cats by injection.
Insulin adjustment
See dose adjustment
Insulinoma
A tumor of the beta cells in the pancreas. An insulinoma may cause
the body to make extra insulin, leading to hypoglycemia.
Insulin pen
A device for injecting insulin that looks like a fountain pen and holds cartridges that contain insulin. The correct insulin pen (U40 or U100) and cartridge should be used for the concentration of insulin to be administered. Injection pens can be disposable or be designed for repeated use (with replaceable cartridges). See also Injection pen.
Insulin receptors
Areas on the outer part of a cell that allow the cell to bind with
insulin in the blood. When the cell and insulin bind, the cell can
move glucose from the bloodstream and use it for energy.
Insulin resistance
The body's inability to respond to and use the insulin it produces.
Insulin resistance may be linked to obesity.
Insulin syringe
Syringes designed for the subcutaneous injection of insulin. The correct insulin syringe (U40 or U100) should be used for the concentration of insulin to be administered (40 IU/mL or 100 IU/mL). See also Syringe.
Intermediate-acting
insulin
A type of insulin that starts to lower blood glucose within 1 to
2 hours after injection and has its most marked effect 6 to 12 hours
after injection, depending on the type used.
See lente
insulin
Islets
Groups of cells located in the pancreas that make hormones that
help the body break down and use food. For example, alpha cells
make glucagon and beta cells make insulin. Also called islets of
Langerhans.
Islets
of Langerhans
See islets
Ketoacidosis
See diabetic
ketoacidosis
Ketone
A chemical produced when there is a shortage of insulin in the blood
and the body breaks down body fat for energy. High levels of ketones
can lead to diabetic ketoacidosis and coma. Sometimes referred to
as ketone bodies.
Ketonuria
A condition occurring when ketones are present in the urine, a warning
sign of diabetic ketoacidosis.
Ketosis
A ketone buildup in the body that may lead to diabetic ketoacidosis.
Signs of ketosis are nausea, vomiting, and stomach pain.
Kidney
disease
See nephropathy
Lancet
A spring-loaded device used to prick the skin with a small needle
to obtain a drop of blood for blood glucose monitoring.
Lente
insulin
An intermediate-acting insulin. On average, lente insulin starts
to lower blood glucose levels within 1 to 2 hours after injection.
Caninsulin is a lente insulin. In dogs, Caninsulin has its most
marked effects 3 hours after injection and keeps working
for 8 hours after injection. In cats, Caninsulin has its
most marked effects 1 to 2 hours after injection it has a shorter duration of action than in dogs.
Low
blood sugar
See hypoglycemia
The period of early corpus luteum development, commencing at the end of estrus and lasting until the beginning of diestrus.
mmol/L
Millimoles per liter, a unit of measure that shows the concentrations
of a substance in a specific amount of fluid. This unit is used
in veterinary and medical journals and a number of countries to
report blood glucose test results. In other countries, mg/dL or
g/L are used. To convert from mmol/L to mg/dL multiply mmol/L by
18; to convert mmol/L to g/L multiply by 0.18 . Example: 10 mmol/L
= 180 mg/dL or 1.8 g/L.
mg/dL
Milligrams per deciliter, a unit of measure that shows the concentration
of a substance in a specific amount of fluid. In some countries,
blood glucose test results are reported as mg/dL. To convert to
mg/dL from mmol/L, multiply mmol/L by 18. Example: 10 mmol/L = 180
mg/dL.
g/L
Grams per liter: a unit of measure that shows the concentration
of a substance in a specific amount of fluid. In some countries,
g/L are used to report blood glucose test results. To convert from
mmol/L to g/L multiply by 0.18. Example: 10 mmol/L = 1.8 g/L.
Nephropathy
Disease of the kidneys. Hyperglycemia and can damage the glomeruli
of the kidneys. When the kidneys are damaged, protein leaks out
into the urine. Damaged kidneys can no longer remove waste and extra
fluids from the bloodstream.
Nerve
disease
See peripheral
neuropathy
Noninsulin-dependent
diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)
Former term for type 2 diabetes.
Oral hypoglycemic agents: Medicines taken by mouth by people with
type 2 diabetes to keep blood glucose levels as close to normal
as possible. These agents are usually not used in diabetic dogs
and cats since these diabetics usually require insulin treatment.
Obesity
By definition, 20% or more extra body fat. Fat works against the
action of insulin. Extra body fat is a risk factor for diabetes,
particularly in cats.
Pancreas
An organ that makes insulin and enzymes for digestion. The pancreas
is located behind the lower part of the stomach and is about the
size of a hand.
Peripheral
neuropathy
Damage to the nerves supplying the legs. Sometimes seen in diabetic
cats.
Polydipsia
Excessive thirst; may be a sign of diabetes mellitus.
Polyphagia
Excessive hunger; may be a sign of diabetes mellitus.
Polyuria
Excessive urination; may be a sign of diabetes mellitus.
Proinsulin
The substance made first in the pancreas and then broken into several
pieces to become insulin.
Proteinuria
The presence of protein in the urine, indicating that the kidneys
are not working properly.
A swing to a high level
of glucose in the blood after a low level.
See Somogyi
effect
Receptors
See insulin
receptors
Renal
threshold
The blood glucose concentration at which the kidneys start to excrete
glucose into the urine.
Secondary
diabetes
A type of diabetes caused by another disease or certain drugs or
chemicals.
Somogyi
effect
Also called rebound Hyperglycemia - when the blood glucose level
swings high following lower than normal blood glucose (or hypoglycemia). The Somogyi effect may follow
an untreated hypoglycemic episode and is caused by the release of
stress hormones.
Sorbitol
A sugar produced by the body in diabetics that can cause damage
to the eyes and nerves.
Subcutaneous injection
Putting a fluid into the tissue under the
skin with a needle and syringe or other injection device.
Sugar
1. A class of carbohydrates with a sweet taste; includes glucose,
fructose, and sucrose. 2. A term used to refer to blood glucose.
Suspension
Syringe
A device used to inject medications or other liquids into body tissues.
The syringe for insulin has a hollow plastic tube with a plunger
inside and a needle on the end.
Transient diabetes
Type
1 diabetes
A condition characterized by high blood glucose concentrations caused
by a complete or absolute lack of insulin. The pancreas then produces little or
no insulin. Most diabetic dogs and cats with type 1 diabetes require insulin treatment.
Type 2 diabetes
A condition characterized by high blood glucose concentrations caused by a relative lack of insulin. The pancreas produces insulin but the tissues are not able to respond properly and the individual is considered to be insulin resistant. The most common cause of insulin resistance is obesity. However, insulin resistance can also be caused by some drugs and other diseases pancreatitis or other endocrine disease (such as hyperthyroidism or acromegaly in cats or hypothyroidism or Cushing’s syndrome in dogs). Most diabetic dogs and cats with this type of diabetes require insulin treatment. The underlying disease should be treated.
Unit of insulin
The basic measure of insulin. U40 insulin means 40 units of insulin per milliliter (mL) of solution. Caninsulin is a U40 or 40 IU/mL insulin.
Urine
The liquid waste product filtered from the blood by the kidneys,
stored in the bladder, and expelled from the body by the act of
urinating.
Urine
testing
Also called urinalysis; a test of a urine sample to diagnose diseases
of the urinary system and other body systems. In dogs and cats with
diabetes, a veterinary surgeon may check for:
Urine may also be checked for signs of bleeding.
Some tests use a single urine sample. For others, 24-hour collection
may be needed. And sometimes a sample is "cultured" to
see exactly what type of bacteria grows.